Some of this information comes from the active learning program developed in 2006 and 2007 for community working groups in the Maitland Valley and Ausable Bayfield source protection areas. The program instruction was between 2008 and 2009. For current water quality information, visit mvca.on.ca and abca.ca for Watershed Report Cards. Also, visit sourcewaterinfo.on.ca for assessment reports and source protection plans. Visit ontario.ca for more information on water quality in Ontario. Information here is provisional, for information and education purposes, and subject to change. This program received funding support from the Province of Ontario. Such support does not indicate endorsement of the contents of this material.

We hope the educational activities from this program – combined with current resources – may help enage you and your neighbours in learning and discussion about ways we can work together to protect municipal drinking water sources.

Module 3 – Water Quality

Chapter 2.3 of the Maitland Valley and Ausable Bayfield Assessment Reports is called Water Quality and Quantity.

All the water that will ever be is, right now.

– National Geographic, October 1993

“The emergence and spread of infectious disease in plant, animal and human populations is a problem in Canada and around the world. Water is a common element in the ecology of many pathogens affecting these populations. Waterborne pathogens can pose threats to drinking water supplies, recreational waters, source waters for agriculture and aquaculture, as well as to aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity. The World Heath Organization has stated that infectious diseases are the world’s single largest source of human mortality (WHO 1996).
Many of these infectious diseases are waterborne and have tremendous adverse impacts in developing countries. While developed countries have been more successful in controlling waterborne pathogens, water quality problems are still prevalent in Canada and the United States.”

– From article, ‘Waterborne Pathogens in Canada,’ Environment Canada (2007)

“Less than two years after the Walkerton tragedy, more than 1,000 boil-water advisories are active across Canada — and for good reason too. Dangerous pollutants continue to contaminate the water. For example, the pathogen cryptosporidium has seeped into the drinking water in North Battleford, Saskatchewan. The industrial chemical Trichloroethylene has crept into the water wells in Beckwith, Ontario And in Liberty, Saskatchewan, the hazardous chemical trihalomethanes has seeped into the water system.”

– ‘Is Canada’s Drinking Water Safer?’, broadcast January 18, 2002, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)

Learning Expectations

By the end of this session you will be able to:

Identify seven key indicators used to assess groundwater quality or
degradation in the planning region: nitrates, hardness, fluoride, iron,
sodium, chloride, E. coli

Recognize how chloride, copper, nitrate, total phosphorus, suspended sediment, fecal coliform and E. coli are used as indicators of suface water quality or degradation
Understand what water quality is and its link to human health in global,
national, provincial and local contexts
Understand there are different standards for water quality (e.g., standards
for recreation compared to standards for drinking water)
Recognize types of contamination including chemicals (e.g., trace metals) and pathogens (such as E. coli including potentially deadly E. coli O157:H7
bacteria).
Appreciate the differences between point and non-point sources of pollution
Understand how geology and human activity can influence surface and
groundwater quality in the Maitland Valley and Ausable Bayfield source
protection areas
Understand there is a relationship between water quantity and water quality

Section One – Module Content

The water quality risk assessment is contained in Chapter 4 of the Assessment Reports.

Download presentation: Overview of Module 3

Unit 1 – Understanding the Importance of Water Quality
Water – What is its importance globally, nationally, provincially, locally?
The Story of Water
Where do you stand on water issues?
What is water quality?

Unit 2 – Geography’s Relationship with Water Quality
Landforms and geology
Land use
The role of sensitive landscapes
Drainage modifications
How water becomes contaminated

Unit 3 – Groundwater and Surface Water Quality in Ausable Bayfield and Maitland Valley Source Protection Region

Overview and assessment

Unit 4 – Wrapping it up
Where do you stand now?
Field learning
Self-assessment on learning goals
More help

Activity 1 – Introduction

How well are my learning goals being met?

Evaluation of Previous Session

1) Did the previous session meet your learning goals and needs?

2) Is the program moving too quickly or too slowly?

3) What can be changed to accommodate your personal learning needs or the information needs of the sector you represent?

Take up these questions as a group, and/or:
a) Share your ideas in the ‘Parking Lot’ bulletin board at the front for questions and comments, and/or;
b) Provide your input through the evaluation form, and/or;
c) Take part in the discussion.

Activity 2 – Group Dialogue – Title: My Personal Water Field Trip Findings

Report back on your field learning personal field trip.

1) What did you learn about your watershed?

2) What changes are there?

3) What land features exist near our watercourses?

4) What activities – in general terms – exist near our watercourses? (for example: Septic systems? Wells? Storage? Application?)

Presentation – Water Quality

Unit 1 – Understanding the Importance of Water Quality

Activity 3 – Group Activity – Title: Where Do You Stand?

Where do you stand on water quality in your watershed?

Your facilitator will put a line of tape along the floor. The tape represents a range of perspectives participants have based on their experiences and thinking.

You can position yourself along the line depending on where you feel most comfortable. At one end of the line there is a purple poster and at the other
end there is an orange poster. If you tend to agree with a statement you will stand closer to the purple poster. If you tend towards disagreement then stand closer to the orange poster. Remember, this is about representing our beginning perspectives on water quality and assessing where we are at, not judging the perspectives of others.

There can also be a ‘white’ poster in the middle where you will go if you don’t know or have no opinion or choose to pass.

1. Water quality is improving in your watershed.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. Governments should put more money into water protection programs.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. Municipal water treatment is doing enough to protect us from chemicals in the water.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. Clean water provides economic benefits.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. Landowners and businesses are doing enough to protect drinking water sources.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. Municipal water is safer than bottled water.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. As an individual you can do more to protect water sources.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. This generation is doing more to protect sources of water than previous generations.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. Landforms and geology can play a major role in affecting water quality.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. Drinking water standards are too stringent.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. Municipal water treatment protects us from cryptosporidium.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

1. The levels of iron and lead in our drinking water is acceptable.

Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

Activity 4 – Group Activity – Title: Toxic Trivia

What do you know about the impact of poor water quality?

On Earth

1. In developing nations . . .
   a) 25%
   b) 50%
   c) 80%
   . . . of disease is water-related.
2. Contaminated water and poor sanitation causes . . .
   a) 30,000
   b) 60,000
   c) 100,000
   . . . deaths daily.

In Canada

1. TRUE or FALSE (Please circle one).
   The St. Lawrence and Fraser rivers, and the Great Lakes, have levels of toxic chemical contamination that may pose a health risk.
   In Ontario
2. More than . . .
   . . . chemical compounds have been identified in the Great Lakes. Many are toxic to humans and others we don’t yet know.
   a) 120
   b) 360
   c) 700
3. . . . of the most highly-valued fish species had disappeared from the Great
   Lakes by 1990. More are at risk.
   a) Two
   b) Four
   c) Seven
4. One drop of oil can render . . .
   a) 25
   b) 50
   c) 1,000
   . . . litres of water unfit for drinking.
5. One gram of household herbicide can contaminate . . .
   a) 10
   b) 10,000
   c) 10,000,000
   . . . litres of drinking water.
6. One gram of PCBs can make up to . . .
   a) 100
   b) 1,000,000
   c) 1,000,000,000
   . . . litres of water unsuitable for aquatic life.
7. One gram of lead makes . . .
   a) 100
   b) 1,000
   c) 20,000
   . . . litres of water unfit for drinking.

SOURCE: Environment and Climate Change Canada fact sheet

Activity 5 – Group Dialogue – Title: The Need for Clean Water

“The Ryan’s Well Foundation started with the ambitious dream of one child: for all the people in Africa to have clean drinking water,” according to the Ryan’s Well Foundation website at ryanswell.ca. When Canadian Ryan Hreljac was in Grade 1 he learned from his teacher “that people were dying because they didn’t have clean water to drink.”

His efforts to raise money for clean water began with doing household chores to raise $70 and his dream grew into a collective effort – with the help of agencies, individuals, businesses and organizations – that has raised more than $1 million for programs to provide clean water in Africa.

Read about the ‘Ryan’s Well Foundation’ online or through or a brochure, or view the documentary Ryan’s Well (McNabb Connolly) and then discuss the following questions:

1. What does Ryan’s initiative tell us about water’s importance to human health?
2. What does this initiative tell us about water’s importance to the economy and people’s lives?
3. How does Ryan demonstrate the power of an individual to make change?
4. We have learned that poor water quality can affect human health. What are some worldwide examples?
5. What are some …

a) national and

b) provincial

… examples of human health impacted by poor water quality?

a)

b)

1. What are some impacts of poor water quality locally?
2. Have there been boil-water advisories within a half-hour drive of your home?
3. Do you know someone who became sick from drinking contaminated water?
4. Why must we protect water sources if the water sources get treated anyway?

Activity 6 – Small Group Activity – Title: Water Words: Defining Water Quality

1. Take five minutes to develop your own definition of water quality.

My water quality definition:

1. Then, in small groups, come up with a small-group definition of water quality.

Was there disagreement?

Consensus?

If needed, consult the Water Quality brochure produced by the source protection region; or a Watershed Report Card; or an assessment report; or a glossary.

Share your small group definition with the larger group.

Compare your definition with a dictionary/facilitator definition or the
glossary.

1. Was there something you missed that you would like to add?

Activity 7 – Presentation – Title: Water Standards for Different Needs

Your facilitator will share with you some of the federal, provincial, municipal, health unit, agricultural, and industry standards related to water quality for different needs: e.g., drinking water, protection of species at risk, recreation, etc.

Write down the levels that are considered officially acceptable for different
activities or uses.

Water Quality Standards

Official Body

Indicator

Standard

Drinking Water

Bottled Water

Aquatic Species

Recreation

Agriculture

Activity 8 – Group Dialogue – Title: What’s in your water?

A multinational financial services company created lots of brand-name recognition with the slogan, ‘What’s in your wallet?’ We would like to ask you the question ‘What’s in your water?’

1. What is the chemical make-up of water?
2. What things should be in your drinking water?
3. What things should not be in your drinking water?
4. Are there chemicals or pathogens that municipal water treatment alone can’t eliminate?
5. Are there cases of municipal water treatment not catching a chemical or pathogen?
6. What examples are there in your region, and in your sector, of people concerned about their drinking water quality?
7. When populations and economies grow how can that affect water?
8. Based on Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks animated illustrations depicting how contaminants can be carried into a drinking water supply what are some of the ways water can be contaminated?

Activity 9 – Presentation – Title: What are ‘point’ and ‘non-point’ sources of potential contamination?

What are point source and non-point source pollution?

Point Source Pollution Definition:

Non-Point Source Pollution Definition:

Examples of Point Source Pollution:

Examples of Non-Point Source Pollution:

What are examples of threats to drinking water sources?

Here are some of the kinds of activities, at home and work, in your area, that could pose a threat to drinking water sources.

Proper management is needed to reduce risk from:
Septic systems; On-site sewage
Fuel oil (including home heating oil)
Liquid fuel such as gas stations
Chemicals (toxic chemicals such as organic solvents and dense non-aqueous phase liquids or DNAPLs)
Commercial fertilizer
Pesticides
Nutrients (manure, bio-solids, grazing)
Waste disposal sites (including storage of hazardous waste)
Sewage works (sewage treatment plants, municipal sewers)
Road salt and snow storage
Others: For the list of 22 provincially prescribed drinking water threats,
visit the Province of Ontario website.

You may also visit the local website at sourcewaterinfo.on.ca for fact sheets.

22 Drinking Water Threat Activities – Prescribed by Regulation

Examples of Threats

For the list of 22 provincially prescribed drinking water threats, visit the Province of Ontario website.

The 22 drinking water threat activities and conditions include:
Establishment, operation or maintenance of a waste disposal site within the meaning of Part V of the Environmental Protection Act.
Storage of PCBs, waste oil and other hazardous waste; landfilling of hazardous, non-hazardous, municipal or commercial waste; land application of untreated septage.
Establishment, operation or maintenance of a system that collects, stores, transmits, treats, or disposes of sewage. (Includes septic systems).
Septic systems, stormwater treatment ponds, discharge of industrial effluent, sewage treatment plants and sanitary sewer systems.
Use of land as livestock grazing or pasturing land, an outdoor confinement area or a farm animal yard.
Fields where livestock graze, feed lots and confinement areas outside barns.
Application of agricultural source material to land. Manure produced by farm animals, and runoff from farm yards and manure storages, or wash water such as milking centre waste, or compost (such as mushroom compost).

Storage of agricultural source material.
Management of agricultural source material.
Application of non-agricultural source material. Land application of sewage bio-solids or other similar wastes such as pulp and paper bio-solids or waste materials from food processing.
Handling and storage of non-agricultural source material.
Application of commercial fertilizer to land. Nitrogen and phosphorus applied or stored for farm or handling and storage of commercial fertilizer.
Commercial use (such as landscaping or golf courses).
Application of pesticide to land. Specific categories of pesticides including:
herbicides, fungicides, or those used as a soil fumigant to control fungi,
nematodes, and Handling and storage of pesticide. weeds, for farm and
commercial use.
Application of road salt. Road salt, pickled sand in large quantities.
Handling and storage of road salt.
Storage of snow. Snow storage over one (1) hectare. Municipal or commercial snow dumps.
Handling and storage of fuel.
Gas stations and card locks or key locks, marinas, private storage such as
farms and contractor yards, and heating oil tanks for homes and businesses.
Handling and storage of a dense non-aqueous phase liquid or DNAPL.
DNAPLs and/or organic solvents may be found in dry-cleaning chemicals, paint and spot removers, rug cleaning fluids, varnishes, paints, lacquers, adhesives, glues, and de-greasing or cleaning agents, and substances used in the production of dyes, polymers, plastics, textiles, and printing inks.
Handling and storage of an organic solvent.
Management of runoff that contains chemicals used in the de-icing of aircraft.
Large airports using ethylene glycol to de-ice aircrafts.
An activity that takes water from an aquifer or a surface water body without returning the water taken to the same aquifer or surface water body. (This is a water quantity threat).
Water taken from groundwater and then discharged into a lake or river. Canning factories; bottling plants.
An activity that reduces the recharge of an aquifer. (This is a water quantity threat).
Liquid hydrocarbon pipeline

Activity 10 – Group Activity – Title: Impacts of Contamination

Water contaminants can have three main impacts:

Persistent, Non-Persistent, and Eutrophication.

The facilitator will define these terms for you or you may consult the glossary:

1. Persistent Pollution
2. Non-Persistent Pollution
3. Eutrophication

The facilitator will give you ‘stickies’ with some of the following potential contaminants:
Cleaning agents (residential)
Cleaning agents (commerce and industry)
Petroleum
Petroleum Products
Domestic Sewage
Metals (Lead)
Metals (Mercury)
Metals (Cadmium)
Caffeine
Foam
Radioactive Materials
Floating Debris
Thermal Pollution
Industrial Wastes
Nutrients (Phosphorus)
Nutrients (Nitrogen)
Fertilizers
PCBs
Dioxins
Leachate
Chloride
Pesticides and other chemicals (Lawn)
Pesticides and other chemicals (Industry)
Pesticides and other chemicals (Agriculture and Recreation and Residential, etc.)
Septage from leaking septic systems
Road salt and sand
Factory discharges
Other

Take the contaminant types given to you and paste them to the part of the participation pie that indicates what kind of potential water quality impact
they have:

Activity 11 – Presentation – Title: Dust off your old notes from biology class

How water relates with plants and animals, phosphorus and nitrogen

Fill in the blanks based on information shared by your facilitator or presenter:

1. ______________ is the trigger for photosynthesis in plants. This results in the creation of oxygen.
2. ___________ uses oxygen to break down plant and animal waste.
3. This creates nutrients and ___________________________.
4. Plants and animals can affect water quality. What are ways plants and animals have a negative impact on water quality or be indicators of poor water quality?
5. What are ways plants and animals can have a positive impact on water quality or be indicators of good water quality?
6. Phosphorus and Nitrogen: When is there too much of a good thing? Are there positive benefits of Phosphorus and Nitrogen?
7. What happens if there is too much Phosphorus and Nitrogen in our sources of water?
8. Your facilitator will – using a chart or multimedia presentation – show you some of the potential sources of nitrogen and phosphorus, physical changes in the water and impacts.

List these effects in this table.

Potential Sources of Nitrogen and Phosphorus

What physical changes happen to the water if too many nutrients reach it?

What are the impacts of these physical changes?

Nitrogen:

Phosphorus:

Unit 2 – Introduction to Factors Influencing Water Quality

Landforms and geology

Land use

The role of sensitive landscapes

Modifications (e.g., sanitary sewers, storm sewers, drainage)

Activity 12 – Small Group Activity – Title: Which is more likely to reach your water source?

Time permitting, break out into small groups.

Group One – Activity 12a

Group One will be asked to look at two photos of driveways:

One is a nice, newly-paved asphalt driveway.

The other is a rocky, gravel driveway with weeds growing in it.

Which poses a greater potential of carrying dripped oil or antifreeze into our water sources?

Discuss within your smaller group then share with the larger group.

Group Two – Activity 12b

Group Two can take a look at the series of ‘Clean Lakes’ posters.

1. What does your poster say about potential water quality contaminants?
2. Is the poster effective?
3. Why or why not?
4. Discuss with the larger group.

Activity 13 – Multimedia Presentation – Title: Land and Water

A multimedia presentation will demonstrate some of the local landforms and geology, land uses, sensitive landscapes and drainage modifications which exist in our watershed. As you prepare to learn from this presentation, think of how local geology might relate to the impacts human and economic activities could have on our water.

1. Pollution can reach what main sources of water?

a)

b)

c)

1. What kind of land would be more likely to provide a way for contaminants to reach water? (For example; what kind of soil type; slope; etc.)
2. What kind of land would be somewhat less likely to provide that pathway for contamination to reach water?
3. What are some of the geological features or human modifications that could allow substances to reach our water sources?

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

Unit 3 – Groundwater and surface water quality in Maitland Valley and Ausable Bayfield watersheds

Overview and assessment

Activity 14 – Presentation – Title: Local threats

Here are some of the kinds of activities, at home and work, in your area, that could pose a threat to drinking water sources.
Proper management is needed to reduce risk from:
Septic systems; On-site sewage
Fuel oil (including home heating oil)
Liquid fuel such as gas stations
Chemicals (toxic chemicals such as organic solvents and dense non-aqueous phase liquids or DNAPLs)
Commercial fertilizer
Pesticides
Nutrients (manure, bio-solids, grazing)
Waste disposal sites (including storage of hazardous waste)
Sewage works (sewage treatment plants, municipal sewers)
Road salt and snow storage
Others: For the list of 22 provincially prescribed drinking water threats,
visit the Province of Ontario website.

1. Based on watershed reports or other data and studies, list areas where water quality contaminants have been flagged for concern:

Areas where water quality contaminants have been flagged in Maitland Valley and Ausable Bayfield study areas

Trend causing concern or in need of further study

Area affected

1. Name three indicators/contaminants that have been flagged for attention in the Ausable Bayfield Maitland Valley study area based on technical studies prepared for the source protection region. (For results, please consult assessment reports and source protection plans at sourcewaterinfo.on.ca):

a)

b)

c)

1. Where were these indicators present? Share with the larger group.

a)

b)

c)

1. Indicators/contaminants found in groundwater:
2. Indicators/contaminants found in surface water:
3. How significant are these findings thought to be?

Unit 4 – Wrapping it up

Activity 15 – Group Activity – Title: Where do you stand now?

Early on in this module we asked you to ‘take a stand’ on the line. Have you moved at all? Let’s find out.

1. Water quality is improving in your watershed.
   Yes (purple) or no (orange)?
2. Municipal water treatment is enough to protect us?
   Yes (purple) or no (orange)?
3. Landforms and geology can play a major role in affecting water quality?
   Yes (purple) or no (orange)?

Activity 16 – Title: Field Learning Assignment Choices for Next Module

There are two field learning assignments from which to choose in order to report back to the group next module:

Field Learning Activity A

Take a drive or ride or walk by your closest water treatment facility – how wide an area does it serve?

Is the source of water groundwater or surface water?

How many people rely on that water?

From a visual observation, what challenges do you think the local water system operator faces?

Field Learning Activity B

Do a survey of how you use water in your home.

How we depend on water at home

Answer ‘Yes’ or ‘No’:
I rely on a clean source of water for my business.
I drink municipal water.
I drink treated Lake Huron water.
I brush my teeth with well water.
I brush my teeth with tap water.
I give tap water to the family pet.
If my water source were contaminated it would cost a great deal of money.
If my water source were contaminated I would worry about its effects on my short-term health.
If my water source were contaminated I would worry about its effects on my long-term health.
I could help protect water sources by preventing contaminated water run-off from my business, home or property into a sewer or other water pathway.
I test my water source every season.

SECTION TWO

Water Quality – Priming the Pump

Notes, Definitions, Fact sheets

WATER QUALITY

Introducing Water Quality

The ABCs of Water Quality

Water Quality as Priority One

Municipal water users get a bill that tells them how much they have to pay for the quantity of water they use. Every month or two they have to pull out their cheque book and pay for a quantity of water.

But what about the quality of water? What does that cost?

When water was contaminated in Walkerton, Ontario in 2000 there was a human cost. Seven people died and many more were left with chronic health problems.

There was also a financial cost. People in Ontario learned that it is less expensive to keep water sources clean than it is to pay the bill to fix a
problem.

But, despite the fact the Walkerton tragedy prompted us, as Ontarians, to take a closer look at our water supplies, let’s set that to one side for the moment.

Walkerton isn’t the only example of how water quality in Ontario can be contaminated or threatened. We only have to look in our own watershed – by reading the local newspaper or talking to a neighbour – to find out about boil-water advisories, chlorine spills, manure or chemical spills, sewage
bypasses, faulty septic systems, and water systems that needed to be replaced.

The point is that water is a fragile resource. Our lives and livelihoods depend upon clean water. And that is why we are all working together with one common purpose.

We may have differences – we may approach the issues from different viewpoints – but we all respect this life-giving resource.

Maintaining water quality is most important, especially in terms of public health. The task of protecting our water sources is highly complex and
multi-faceted.

The cost of not protecting our water is staggering.

In the final analysis, degraded water reduces the supply available as drinking water.

What do we know about waterborne pathogens?

This article from Environment Canada (now Environment and Climate Change Canada) provides information on waterborne pathogens in Canada:

Waterborne Pathogens in Canada – From: Environment Canada (2007)

(Please visit Environment and Climate Change Canada for current resource)

The emergence and spread of infectious disease in plant, animal and human populations is a problem in Canada and around the world. Water is a common element in the ecology of many pathogens affecting these populations. Waterborne pathogens can pose threats to drinking water supplies, recreational waters, source waters for agriculture and aquaculture, as well as to aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity.

The World Heath Organization has stated that infectious diseases are the world’s single largest source of human mortality (WHO 1996). Many of these infectious diseases are waterborne and have tremendous adverse impacts in developing countries. While developed countries have been more successful in controlling waterborne pathogens, water quality problems are still prevalent in Canada and the United States.

Waterborne pathogens can pose significant human health threats as the drinking water outbreak in Walkerton, Ontario, demonstrated, where seven people died and 2,500 became ill.

A drinking water incident in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1993 resulted in 54 deaths and more than 400,000 cases of illness (Hoxie et al. 1997).

Waterborne disease outbreaks in Canada have been monitored by Health Canada since 1974. Between 1974 and 1996, the last year for which data are available, more than 200 outbreaks of infectious disease associated with drinking water were reported (Todd and Chatman 1974-1996). There were greater than 8,000 confirmed cases linked to these outbreaks. However, depending upon the severity of the symptoms, the actual number of cases can be 10 to 1,000 times greater than the number of reported cases.

Public attention has recently focused on a variety of drinking water threats from bacteria (E. coli O157:H7 in Walkerton, Ont., in 2000), to protozoa
(Toxoplasma gondii in Victoria, B.C., in 1995) and viruses (Hepatitis A in Île d’Orléans, QC, in 1995).

Bacteria (primarily Salmonella, Shigella and Campylobacter) were responsible for 78 drinking water outbreaks in Canada between 1974 and 1996. Protozoa and unidentified pathogens were responsible for 59 and 43 outbreaks, respectively.
Enteric viruses, primarily Norwalk and Hepatitis A, were responsible for 23 outbreaks. The number of outbreaks caused by protozoa is particularly
interesting. In 1990, the cumulative total was only 20, but outbreaks caused by protozoa have tripled since then. Most of these outbreaks were caused by Giardia, but in 1993 the first reported outbreak caused by Cryptosporidium occurred in Canada.

Since then, outbreaks of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis have occurred in all regions of the country. In 1995, the first outbreak of toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) linked to a municipal drinking water supply occurred in British Columbia. The large number of outbreaks caused by unknown agents is also of interest. It is probable that many of these were caused by enteric waterborne viruses.

Waterborne pathogens also pose threats to ambient recreational waters resulting in illnesses and economic impacts on local communities.

From 1992 to 1995 there were 2,839 beach closings or postings reported for 169 public beaches on lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron and Superior (Health Canada 1998).

Pathogens such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia are known to occur across Canada in aquatic ecosystems that serve as sources of recreation and drinking water. As an example, a study of waterborne pathogens has been underway in southern Alberta since mid-1999 (J. Byrne, personal communication). Health Canada and University of Lethbridge research scientists have monitored Salmonella, E. coli 0157:H7 and coliform/fecal coliform (C/FC) populations in the Oldman River basin. This area includes an extensive network of irrigation canals associated with intensive livestock production. In 1999 and 2000, a number of these pathogens were identified, with pathogen populations peaking in mid to late summer of both years.

In late July 2000, almost half of the monitoring sites tested positive for one or more pathogens and researchers found E. coli 0157:H7 in Park Lake, Park Lake Provincial Park, one of the most popular recreation locations in southern Alberta. FC populations in the Oldman basin typically exceeded the Guidelines for Canadian Recreational Water Quality (GCRWQ) in most samples, and in many cases, FC counts exceeded GCRWQ by a factor of five or more.

Pathogen contamination of aquatic ecosystems is known to occur from a range of sources including municipal wastewater effluents, agricultural wastes, and wildlife. This contamination can pose threats to water sources required for agriculture and aquaculture. For example, pathogen contamination of irrigation waters or shellfish areas can pose risks to human food supplies. Such pathogen threats can lead to significant health care and economic impacts as well as significant trade implications and intrusive disease controls. Aquaculture exists in intimate contact with aquatic ecosystems. The presence of pathogens in source waters can severely limit success of food fish production for domestic consumption and export (Hedrick 1998).

Another critical aspect of waterborne disease is the threat that pathogens can pose to aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity. Much like the concern about emerging human pathogens, there is growing concern about non-human pathogens and their impacts on wildlife and biodiversity in Canada and around the world (CCWHC 1999; Daszak et al. 2000). For example, outbreaks of botulism caused by Clostridium botulinum have caused substantial waterfowl mortalities at locations across Canada.

In addition, newly emerging fungal and viral pathogens have contributed to significant declines in amphibian populations around the world from frogs in South America to tiger salamanders in Saskatchewan (Carey 2000).

The current status of many pathogen threats to drinking water and aquatic ecosystems remains uncertain although they are likely underestimated. These threats are accompanied by growing concerns about pathogens as causative factors in chronic diseases such as ulcers, cancer and heart disease where infectious agents were not previously suspected of being involved (ASM 1999b). Additional surveillance and scientific research is required to better understand the nature of these pathogen threats.

SOURCES:

Tom Edge, James M. Byrne, Roger Johnson, Will Robertson and Roselynn Stevenson, Environment Canada, National Water Research Institute, Burlington, ON,

University of Lethbridge, Water Resources Institute, Lethbridge, AB, Health Canada, Laboratory for Foodborne Pathogens, Guelph, ON, Health Canada, Water Quality

Division, Ottawa, Ont., University of Guelph, Department of Microbiology, Guelph, Ont

View relevant Environment and Climate Change Canada bulletin.

Water Contaminants: Where do they come from?

Water pollution originates from all sectors and corners. Some examples follow:

Industrial and commercial – Industrial effluent, air pollution, which is returned as rain or settles as dust, contaminating water resources.

Residential – Sewage treatment effluent, septage, urban runoff.

Agricultural – Application and storage of manure, pesticides, fertilizer, and water running off of fields.

Other human activities – Winter road maintenance, landfill sites, automotive pollution

Natural sources – Animal waste, decaying vegetation and runoff.

Point Sources and Non-point Sources

Water contaminants come from two categories of sources: Point Sources and Non-point Sources.

What is non-point source pollution ?

Non-point source (NPS) pollution, unlike pollution from industrial and sewage treatment plants, comes from many sources. Rainfall or snowmelt moves over and through the ground and this moving runoff picks up and carries natural, animal and human-made pollutants. The runoff then carries the pollutants into watercourses (lakes, rivers, coastal waters, etc.), wetlands, and underground sources of drinking water. Non-point sources cannot be attributed to a specific source or location. For example, fertilizers and pesticides applied to land (and, by infiltration, potentially entering groundwater) are non-point sources.
A non-point source is not traced from a single point but from diverse untraced sources – such as runoff from the land (whether industrial, agricultural, residential, institutional, or other).

What is point source pollution?

A point source of pollution is a single, identifiable source of pollution, whether that be water, air, noise, light or thermal pollution. When waste is
discharged to the receiving waters from a pipe or drain, from an identifiable source such as a wastewater treatment plant or industrial discharge, then that contamination originates from a definite source. For more information visit Victoria EPA site.

Point sources are more easily identified geographically. Point source contamination comes from a source that can be identified. Your municipal
landfills and industrial waste disposal sites are examples of point sources. Point source pollution is a source of pollution that can be traced to a specific point of origin, such as a discharge pipe.

Ambient water

Ambient water is the natural concentration of water quality constituents prior to mixing of either point or non-point source load of contaminants.

Corridor pollution

Pollution can be transported through a stream corridor – a corridor is a long, narrow area centered on river or other watercourse along a line.

Why must we protect drinking water sources if the water is treated anyway?
Doesn’t municipal treatment protect us from all chemicals and pathogens?
Should we rely on municipal water treatment to catch everything?

We have local and regional examples of water quality incidents even after water treatment. For instance, the City of London in 2007 had to begin wrestling with lead in its drinking water. Municipal drinking water is filtered and disinfected. There are pathogens, however, that are not sensitive to chlorine, such as cryptosporidium.

What is cryptosporidium?

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), explains that:
“Cryptosporidium is a parasite commonly found in lakes and rivers, especially when the water is contaminated with sewage and animal wastes. Cryptosporidium is very resistant to disinfection, and even a well-operated water treatment system cannot ensure that drinking water will be completely free of this parasite.”
[Safe Drinking Water – Guidance for people with severely weakened immune systems, EPA 816 -F-99-005, June 1999, Co-released with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995). In the United States of America, more than 400,000 residents of the greater Milwaukee, Wisconsin area – about one quarter of the entire population – became ill in 1993 when cryptosporidium oocysts were not removed in one of two municipal water treatment plants. An estimated 100 people died. Apart from the great human impact of this tragedy, it was estimated the economic cost of the incident was about $100 million. [Corso PS, Kramer MH, Blair KA, Addiss DG, Davis JP, Haddix AC. Cost of illness in the 1993 Waterborne Cryptosporidium outbreak, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Emerg Infect Dis [serial online]
2003 Apr [date cited]. Available from: URL:
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol9no4/02-0417.htm

Chemicals such as pesticides and heavy metals, once dissolved in water, won’t be removed by most treatments. When filtering is in place it may reduce levels somewhat. Nitrate would also fit in this category and the only management of this is to blend water of high and low concentrations to meet guidelines.

“Today, in terms of water quality, toxic chemicals overshadow all other problems in the Great Lakes and in many other water bodies in Canada. Although we are striving to solve this threat to water quality, we still have a long way to go before it is under control,” according to A Primer on Fresh Water, an Environment Canada (now Environment and Climate Change Canada) website.

Pollution Probe provides this information in its Drinking Water Primer:

“Between 1991 and 1995, Health Canada surveyed untreated and treated drinking water in 72 municipalities across Canada. Out of the 1173 samples of untreated water that they tested, 21 per cent were contaminated with Giardia and five per cent with Cryptosporidium. Out of the 423 treated water samples, 18 per cent showed the presence of Giardia and four per cent contained Cryptosporidium. In municipalities that had water filtration facilities, contamination was less common. Health Canada also reported, however, that only a small fraction of the parasites appeared to be viable and their ability to infect humans was not determined. They also stated that, nevertheless, outbreaks of illness linked to these parasites in drinking water had been reported in several provinces.

Effective methods for determining whether and to what extent protozoa are present in water have not yet been developed. It is best, therefore, to assume that they are present in the water and to treat the water accordingly. What you can do about microbiological contamination? Microbiological contamination of public water supplies is rare due to the requirements for disinfection and frequent monitoring of water both when it comes into the system and after it has been treated. If contamination occurs, the local public health officer will issue a boil water advisory, which will remain in effect until remedial measures have been taken and are effective.”

In 1993, residents of nearby Waterloo Region were advised to boil their tap water. Why? Because of the possible presence of Cryptosporidium parvum, a toxic microbial life form. [Media release, University of Waterloo, July 9, 2001, with reference to work of Prof. Monica Emelco, environmental and civil engineering.]

“Boiling is still considered the safest way to deal with the ‘crypto’ problem. Chlorinating the water won’t kill it, nor will ozone or iodine. And there is no
medicine that will clear it up once it gets into your body. You simply have to let it run its course. As well, you can get it not only from your kitchen tap,
but also by swimming in a backyard pool, for example.”

A website in the United States claims that in that country “ … tap water in 42 states is contaminated with more than 140 unregulated chemicals that lack safety standards, according to the Environmental Working Group’s (EWG’s) two-and-a-half year investigation of water suppliers’ tests of the treated tap water served to communities across the country.” [National Tap Water Quality Database, A National Assessment of Tap Water Quality, More than 140 contaminants with no enforceable safety limits found in the nation’s drinking water, Utilities need more money to monitor for contaminants and protect source waters, Environmental
Working Group, December 20, 2005].

Children can be particularly susceptible to chemicals in water, according to the Canadian Institute of Child Health: “Residues of fuels or industrial chemicals can . . . become waterborne during heavy rains and floods. Landfill sites that contain toxic waste from household cleaners, paints, plastics, garden pesticides, fuels and other toxic substances used in everyday life may also become a source of chemical contamination during flood conditions. Exposure to toxic chemicals in drinking water could occur over long periods and result in the gradual accumulation of chemicals in the body. Risks associated with exposure to these chemicals include damage to the immune, reproductive and nervous systems. Many chemical toxins are also associated with certain types of cancers.” [Canadian Institute of Child Health, a national charitable institution, water supply fact sheet, 2003.]

The diagram, from Alberta Environmental Protection, shows one model of water treatment from a surface water source – in this case, a river. How is this similar to water treatment in your area? How is it different?

What if I boil my water?

Boiling water kills germs but will not remove heavy metals and chemicals, according to Environment and Climate Change Canada.

Environment and Climate Change Canada’s website, A Primer on Fresh Water, has some excellent answers to some common questions related to water:

Is chlorine in the water supply necessary, and could it become a health hazard?

Chlorine was introduced as a disinfectant in water treatment around 1900. It has since become the predominant method for water disinfection. Apart from its effectiveness as a germicide, it offers other benefits such as colour removal, taste and odour control, suppression of algal growths, and precipitation of iron and manganese. In addition, chlorine is easy to apply, measure, and control. It is quite effective and relatively inexpensive. Chlorine as a disinfectant in water treatment can be a health hazard if its concentration or the concentrations of certain by-products (e.g., trihalomethanes, a chlorinated organic compound) are greater than the Canadian drinking water quality guidelines allow. If the maximum acceptable concentrations are exceeded, the authorities responsible for public health should be consulted for the appropriate corrective action.

Some people say that you shouldn’t pour solvents and other household chemicals down the drain because they pollute the rivers and lakes. Is that true? (Yes)How else can I get rid of them? (Visit sourcewaterinfo.on.ca for information on proper disposal of household hazardous waste at local depots and hazardous waste disposal days.)

While household chemical products are generally safe for the uses they are designed for, some may become harmful to the environment as they accumulate in it. For this reason you should not put these products down a drain. Most sewage treatment facilities are not capable of removing such toxic substances. You should alsobe aware, in most instances, that anything put into the storm sewer system goes directly to the receiving lake or river completely untreated. So, before you feel like dumping anything down a drain or into a storm sewer, remember that you or others may be drinking it some day. For those substances that you have at home now and want toget rid of, such as old paint, find out whether there is a hazardous waste disposal site in your community and take them there. You may also contact your local environmental health officer for assistance. Make sure the containers are labeled to indicate the contents.

Water treatment plants can do their job more effectively, efficiently and less expensively if they have better quality of source water with which to begin.

What about wastewater plants – don’t they treat water too?There is usually some treatment of wastewater before discharge but not at the same level as a drinking water treatment plant. Conventional wastewater treatment plants remove suspended solids and some of the organic matter, according to Environment and Climate Change Canada. More advanced plants also remove phosphorus and nitrogen, which are nutrients for aquatic plants. Both of these nutrients are present in human sewage as well as in runoff. Laundry detergents were once a major source of phosphorus, but regulations controlling its use in detergent manufacturing
have minimized its impact on receiving waters in Canada.

Eutrophication, Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and harmful toxins

When there are too much nutrient enrichment – such as phosphorus and nitrogen – in lakes and surface waters this can result in eutrophication, which is is one of the major problems facing surface waters.

Eutrophication can result in more growth of algae and floating plants. When lakes are highly enriched with nutrients there is the potential for the growth of certain types of algae such as blue-green algae or cyanobacteria and dinoflagelates.
The release of these types of algae in water can result in powerful toxins that are poisonous even at low concentrations. When chlorine is used to treat water with these types of algae there is the potential for the formation of compounds that are carcinogenic (cancer-causing). This poses a serious threat to the safety of drinking water supplies, according to the United Nations Environment Programme Division of Technology, Industry and Economics.

Visit the United Nations Environment Programme Division of Technology, Industry and Economics publications on Eutrophication.

Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae can form blooms in conditions where nutrient loadings are high and temperatures are high. This can cause bad taste or odour. It can also be toxic. Toxins released by some of these bacteria can pose health risks to humans and animals.

A Province of Ontario fact sheet [PIBS 5089] answers the question ‘can drinking water be contaminated by toxins from blue-green algae?’ “If water is obtained from a surface water source during a blue-green algae bloom, then it is possible that the water may be contaminated with toxins. Usually people won’t drink water contaminated with blue-green algae blooms because of its unsightly pea soup appearance and foul smell. However, sometimes it is hard to tell if the drinking water has been contaminated unless confirmed by laboratory tests specifically for measuring microcystin levels.”

Read Threats to Sources of Drinking Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Health in Canada at Environment and Climate Change Canada website.

“Toxins are produced by blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and other types of algae in quantities sufficient to cause death of animals and pose a risk to Canadians’ health (Chorus and Bartram 1999). Cyanobacteria form heavy growths in ponds, lakes, reservoirs and slow-moving rivers throughout the world. Water blooms are composed of large numbers of cells or filaments, often in colonies. These cells can house toxins called cyanotoxins. When the waterbloom mass rises to the surface of the water, it is referred to as a surface scum or a surface water bloom. Although we do not know the extent to which cyanobacterial blooms occur across Canada, we do know they mostly appear in the hot summer months and are quite prevalent in the Prairie provinces as well as other water bodies across Canada. Cyanotoxins are the naturally produced poisons stored in the cells of certain species of cyanobacteria. These toxins fall into various categories. Some are known to attack the liver (hepatotoxins) or the nervous system (neurotoxins); others simply irritate the skin (dermotoxins). These toxins are usually released into water when the cells rupture or die. Most cyanotoxins have been isolated and characterized. Detection methods, including rapid screening, are being developed to help us learn more about them, especially to find out which toxins are a problem in Canada and what conditions encourage their production.”

– Threats to Sources of Drinking Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Health in Canada

Water Quality in the Ausable Bayfield Maitland Valley Source Protection Region: An Overview

Which contaminants concern us most in the Ausable Bayfield Maitland Valley Source Protection Region?

Sampling results tell us we must focus locally on:
Nitrate,
Total phosphorus,
Suspended sediment and;
Bacteria.

For current information on water quality, consult the brochure ‘Water Quality,’ produced by the Ausable Bayfield Maitland Valley Drinking Water Source Protection Region, as well as Assessment Reports; Source Protection Plans; and Watershed Report Cards at abca.ca and mvca.on.ca.

Visit sourcewaterinfo.on.ca and mvca.on.ca; and abca.ca.

Our Groundwater

Across the region, overburden and bedrock aquifers generally have good water quality. However, some impacts are noted. One estimate stated that approximately a third of private wells tested have nitrates exceeding guidelines. Frequently this is a well construction issue. Shallow aquifers are vulnerable areas as they have a shorter travel time for contaminants on the surface to leach into the groundwater.

Our Surface Water – Inland

Water quality in the region’s streams and rivers generally exceeds the acceptable levels for recreation and ecosystem protection.

Our Surface Water – Lake Huron

For current information, consult the approved Assessment Reports.

At the time of the adult learning program development, it was felt that the Goderich intake might be more vulnerable (compared to the Lake Huron Primary Water Supply System at Port Blake) given the potential influence of the Maitland River plume and the location of the intake nearer to shore.

Water quality at Port Blake was generally good but chloride levels were increasing.

At Goderich, nutrient concentrations threaten to lead to over-enrichment of the lake.

Elsewhere, sampling indicates water recreation in Lake Huron is impacted: while results vary, total phosphorus, nitrate and bacteria levels are frequently high in near shore, shallow locations (e.g., especially in and above where water washes onto the shore).

Factors Influencing Water Quality in the Ausable Bayfield Maitland Valley Source Protection Region

Now that we have a preliminary snapshot of the region, it is time to consider the factors which influence water quality. What do the physical characteristics of the watersheds (their geography) have to do with water quality? And what do human activities, the ways we use our land and water resources, have to do with it?

To answer we have to understand how geography and our use of the land combine to affect water quality, and that requires examining our geography and our behaviour around four key factors:
Pathways;
Landforms and geology;
Land use and land management; How land is used and managed around features that are vulnerable to pollution;
The extent to which natural drainage has been modified.

In its natural state, nutrients are present in and on the land. Human activity adds nutrients and other contaminants. Whether these contaminants are
transferred to surface or groundwater depends largely on the physical characteristics (the geography) of the land.

The key four factors influencing water quality are discussed below.

1. The Pathways of Water (Landforms and Geology)

A watershed’s physical characteristics will determine the movement of its water.

For example:
The slope of the land will define direction of water’s movement;
Severity of slope will affect speed of movement;
Soil permeability will affect how quickly water will infiltrate and how much will run off;
The permeability of sub-surface geology will affect the quantity of and time for water infiltrating aquifers.

So what are the implications for water quality? Here are two:
Highly permeable soils and geology will conduct contaminants quickly to the groundwater;
Landforms that encourage rapid runoff will conduct contaminants to
watercourses.

1. Land Use and Land Management

Land use is the second major influence on water quality (and quantity). Physical characteristics aside, the level of nutrients present and the type and extent of vegetation are key to water quality impact. Land management practices are also important. To explain by example:
The more exposed the soil (the lesser the vegetative cover), the greater the possibility contaminants will be carried to streams;
Soil compaction may reduce infiltration to the point that a groundwater system may become a surface water system (instead of entering the aquifer, rainwater runs off as surface water).

1. The ‘Role’ of Sensitive Landscapes

Beyond such matters as topography (e.g., the slope of the land) or soil permeability, there are particular physical characteristics which can
disproportionately affect water quality. In other words, we must be highly aware of the part environmentally sensitive landscapes and landforms may play in water quality. For example:
Erosion-prone soil and steep slopes can contribute sediment and nutrients to surface water;
Saturated soils (such as springs or high water tables) are vulnerable to land use activities;
Sinkholes can be conduits for nutrients to reach groundwater quickly and without significant filtration.

By understanding

a) The pathways of water; and,

b) The sensitivity or vulnerability of certain landscape types;

it is possible to select land management practices that serve to protect water quality.

In the Maitland Valley and Ausable Bayfield watersheds, groundwater is typically of higher quality than surface water due largely to the area’s physical characteristics (the geography tends to protect groundwater).

1. Drainage Modifications

Drainage is a complex topic.

Review Tile Drainage – Questions and Answers to Frequently Asked Questions about Tile Drainage and the Environment by Heather Fraser and Ron Fleming, Ridgetown College – University of Guelph.

This is the fourth major influence on water quality.

Drainage systems shorten the distance and time it takes for precipitation to
reach a tile, a drain and then a stream or river.

This may have benefits – for instance, preventing the pooling of water – but there may be risks to water quality.

The natural properties of the land in settling sediments and in filtering contaminants (through infiltration) may be negated;
The assimilation of contaminants is reduced;
As water has less chance to infiltrate, water quantities are reduced and contaminants become more concentrated (dilution effects are reduced).

It is estimated that more than 75 per cent of the Ausable Bayfield Maitland Valley Source Protection Region has been tile-drained.

Water Quality in the Ausable Bayfield and Maitland Valley Study Area: Surface Water

Why worry about inland surface water?

Water sampling indicates that the region’s major water contaminants are nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, bacteria, and suspended sediments.

As drinking water is our focus – and our drinking water sources are Lake Huron and groundwater – then why are we concerned with surface water quality within the watersheds?

The answer is simple – surface water can impact both Lake Huron and groundwater:

Rivers and streams let out near Lake Huron intakes;

‘Connections’ between certain rivers (the Maitland and the Bayfield) and groundwater are indicated;

Municipal drains to sinkholes may create a direct surface-to-groundwater link.

Indicators

An indicator is …a certain chemical, organism or characteristic that is used to determine and monitor changes in environmental conditions.

Data points to indicators and causes can be inferred.

An indicator can:
Represent a contamination source with their presence or lack thereof,
Assist in determining the pathway water has taken,
Provide information which follows a guideline for determining the impacts on humans or the ecosystem,
Be related to the behaviour of chemicals or pathogens of interest, but they
are easier to collect in the field or analyze in the laboratory.

Which contaminants concern us in assessing surface water quality?

Historic data point to two factors:

Indicators such as nitrogen, phosphorus and suspended sediment.

Erosion.

The result has been to experience nutrient enrichment in surface water.

Fecal coliform and E. coli are indicators of harmful bacteria. This is a potential threat to drinking water and a current concern for recreational water quality (Lake Huron).

Source Protection Region: Indicators and Sampling Sites

Given the level of data and analysis of the region’s water quality, a number of indicators are used to characterize surface water quality when collecting and interpreting water samples. These indicators are:
Chloride
Copper
Nitrate
Total phosphorus
Suspended sediment
Fecal coliform and E. coli

For current water quality information consult assessment reports at
sourcewaterinfo.on.ca

Six sites have been selected on two bases:

The sites are in the downstream sections of the watersheds, such that they
capture all possible sources;

The sites represent the six major watersheds of the region.

Surface Water Quality Findings (for the region) summarized in chart form:

Indicator

Potential Sources

Issues/Hotspots/Outlook

Chloride

Road salt, sewage effluent, septic seepage, animal waste

Highest levels in Maitland at Goderich, declining since 1989.

Not concern at present or over 20-year term.

Continued monitoring needed to protect drinking water.

Copper

Sewage treatment effluent

Concentrations constant or in decline

Improvement at Port Albert

Increasing trend at Boyle Drain, investigation indicated

Not concern at present or over 20 year term.

Continued monitoring needed to protect drinking water.

Nitrate

Lawn fertilizer, septic systems, manure, sewage treatment effluent, atmospheric disposition

Concentrations have increased at all sites

Five of six sampling sites exceed protection limit 50 per cent of time (Nine Mile River is the exception)

1970-85 largest concentrations

Impact assessment re: Lake Huron intakes needed.

Total Phosphorus

Lawn fertilizer, nutrients and manure, septic systems, sewage treatment effluent, milkhouse wash water

Effect: Excessive levels reduce oxygen in the water.

Transported with runoff, therefore, erosion is a concern.

Half of the time concentrations are over the provincial water quality objectives.

Phosphorus enrichment is a region-wide concern.

Suspended Sediment

Soil erosion, runoff, streambank erosion, channel processes

Can transport phosphorus

Can destroy aquatic and spawning habitat

In decline, constant and below guideline for –

Nine Mile

Maitland

Bayfield Rivers

Blyth Brook

Improvement at the Ausable, concentrations at or slightly above guideline.

But suspended sediment exceeded guideline at the Parkhill site despite declines.

Improvements tied to agricultural and erosion control efforts since mid-1980s.

Please consult current assessment reports and Watershed Report Cards for current information.

Bacteria:

Fecal coliform and E. coli

Sewage treatment effluent, livestock manure, septic systems

High concentrations indicate possible harmful bacteria and pathogens.

Concentrations fluctuate, but data is incomplete.

More on the Surface Water Quality Story

Nitrate

High nitrate levels may be related to the widespread shift in land management practices particularly as introduced in the 1970-’85 period. Anecdotal evidence points to:

Increased use of commercial fertilizer,

Decline of mixed farming,

Increase in cash cropping and specialized farming systems particularly in the south part of the region.

The connections need to be better understood, according to researchers.

Total Phosphorus

Although there is much to be learned about the kinds of algae that exist, and the factors that contribute to increased algae in our water, it is generally accepted that excess phosphorus can contribute to increased algae.

Algae (like all plants) photosynthesize in the day, releasing oxygen, and respire at night, consuming oxygen. Oxygen levels in some water bodies can
approach zero in the morning, a level that severely impacts the aquatic environment. High phosphorus levels can also result in the dying off of algae, which when biologically consumed uses still more oxygen.

Despite significant declines in some locations, total phosphorus concentrations far exceeded the benchmarks.

Suspended Sediment

Parkhill Creek is the only watercourse with readings exceeding the guideline of 25 mg/Litre 50 per cent of the time or more.

Suspended sediments are important because chemicals and pathogens attach to them and settle or move downstream and settle. They can also clog waterways.
The Ausable watershed has readings that hover around the guideline.

Bacteria: E. coli

Fecal coliform and Escherichia coli are found in the gut of warm-blooded animals – and in the waste of humans and animals. Their presence in water represents a potential threat to human health and the potential that water may have other disease-causing organisms. E. coli readings in our watercourses exceeded the guideline for recreation use throughout the region.

Municipal wells need to be heavily treated so E. coli are not in the drinking water.

According to the Public Health Agency of Canada, “Escherichia coli, usually called E. coli, refers to a large group of bacteria that is commonly found in
the intestines of humans and animals. Most strains of E. coli are harmless; however, some strains, such as E. coli O157: H7, can make people sick, causing severe stomach cramps, diarrhea and vomiting. Serious complications of an E. coli O157:H7 infection can include kidney failure.”

More than 2,300 people became ill and seven people died when the drinking water system in Walkerton, Ontario became contaminated in May of 2000.

The well system was contaminated with deadly bacteria: primarily Escherichia coli O157:H7.1 as well as Campylobacter jejuni.

Studies on E. coli O157:H7 in various soil types show that these pathogens survive at least 10 to 25 weeks. Escherichia coli are bacteria that normally
inhabit the large intestines of humans and other mammals. Most E. coli bacteria are harmless to healthy humans and do not cause disease. However, some forms of E. coli cause disease through the intestines.

E. coli O157:H7, a subgroup of E. coli, produces verotoxins that cause hemorrhagic colitis and, in some cases, hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). HUS is life-threatening.

A person infected with E. coli O157:H7 can experience intestinal disease marked by diarrhea usually lasting about four days or more. Bloody diarrhea often occurs 24 hours after someone gets the illness. The infected person may experience severe abdominal pain.

E. coli O157:H7 infection can have very serious consequences to the elderly and to children under five years of age. It may cause hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS).

Verotoxins produced by E. coli O157:H7 cause acute kidney failure, anemia, and low platelet counts, according to the Report of the Walkerton Inquiry.

Verotoxin produced by E. coli O157:H7 can also affect small blood vessels in the brain.

Campylobacter jejuni is the most common type of Campylobacter bacteria that causes human illness. It is often found in feces of cattle, swine, sheep, goats, fowl, and wildlife, including birds and deer. Most human infections are caused by the ingestion of contaminated foods, usually undercooked poultry. C. jejuni can also be passed to humans through unpasteurized milk, direct contact with animals, person-to-person transmission, and water.

For more information visit this link: Walkerton Inquiry

Spatial Patterns in Surface Water Quality 2001-’05

General observations on the significance of patterns

It is important to determine whether water quality indicators are found everywhere or are localized. Spatial trends and patterns help:
To diagnose water quality issues (by comparing areas exhibiting issues with those not);
To target improvement projects by area and by type for maximum ‘return on investment.’

Forty-five sampling sites are used and the analysts broke those sites into three groups:
Main branch rivers and streams,
Headwater streams (all comparatively small),
Lakeshore streams and gullies.

Patterns in Main Branch Rivers and Streams

Nitrate: For main branch watercourses, nitrate concentrations increase from north to south, the reasons revolving around natural conditions and land use/management:

Groundwater systems become comparatively less common and surface water systems more common moving north to south.

Clay soils are predominant in the south (less permeable).

The south has less forest cover (faster runoff, less infiltration).

The south has proportionately more of its agricultural land drained and in cash crops.

A high concentration of nitrates is an issue in the Middle Maitland and Bayfield Rivers.

Total Phosphorus: For main-branch watercourses, total phosphorus concentrations are similar. Where there are relatively higher concentrations there seems to be a connection to the presence of clay soils (which are erosion-prone and which carry the phosphorus) and to row cropping (also associated with erosion).

The Middle Maitland showed high levels and is possibly affected by the Listowel Sewage/Wastewater Treatment Plant. The plant meets standards for tertiary treatment but the receiving stream has very low flows.

Parkhill Creek and Ausable are many times over the Provincial water quality objectives.

E. coli: Concentrations are similar for main branch watercourses. Ninety per cent of sites had median concentrations above the guidelines for recreational water use.

Two locations stand out: the Middle Maitland River near Listowel and Black Creek north of Exeter.

Those watercourses with higher bacteria concentrations also have higher phosphorus concentrations.

Headwater streams tend to have higher concentrations as well, possibly due to higher drainage densities, dilution effects and/or bacteria die-off.

Patterns in Headwater Streams

There are data gaps. However, it is known that headwater streams are vulnerable:

More land is in contact with this category of streams (they are more numerous);

Headwater streams are subject to considerable tile drainage.

It is logical, therefore, to focus more surface water quality effort on
headwater streams than on main branches.

Patterns in Lakeshore Streams and Gullies

These watercourses are varied in water quality but a number are affected by nitrates, phosphorus and other nutrients. Non-point sources may be the main contributors.

Surface Water Quality: Review and Highlights

Please visit assessment reports at sourcewaterinfo.on.ca for current
information.

Across the Study Area

Presence of rural non-point source issues (nitrogen, phosphorus, bacteria).

Absence of urban-type contaminants (copper, chloride) in concentrations above guidelines.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen (nitrate) is a region-wide issue (aside from Nine Mile Creek). Samples exceed the aquatic protection limit.

Nitrate concentrations increase from north to south.

Headwater streams – on this size stream (headwaters are lower-order streams) – have higher nitrates suggesting need for action on this size of stream.

Bayfield River and Parkhill Creek and to a lesser extent the Ausable are showing an increasing nitrate trend, suggestive of a need for action focus.

Toxic nitrate concern requires more data in Black Creek, Boyle Drain, and the Middle Maitland.

Total Phosphorus

Concentrations generally are not high.

Priority focus on Parkhill Creek and Middle Maitland watersheds.

Secondary focus on the Ausable River and four shoreline creeks (Kintail, Kingsbridge, Griffins and at Mid Huron Beach).

Bacteria (E. coli)

Levels are elevated, generally. About 85 per cent of sites have median concentrations that exceed recreational guideline, requiring a focus on:
Middle Maitland,
Black Creek,
Lake Huron shoreline,
Kingsbridge, Griffins Creeks.

Most lower-order watercourses having high drainage densities and low flows.

Heavy metals

Some watercourses have concentrations that are a concern. The connection to Sewage or Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) is to be investigated.

Water Quality in Maitland Valley and Ausable Bayfield study areas: Groundwater

Understanding Groundwater: Bedrock and Overburden Aquifers

Underfoot are reservoirs of groundwater, potentially usable as drinking water. These reservoirs are called aquifers. They are not underground rivers or great pools of water that fill otherwise empty caverns (not usually, anyway).

Visualize an aquifer as water trapped in a sponge.

One type of aquifer is the ‘bedrock aquifer’ found in layers in permeable
(porous) bedrock.

A second is the overburden aquifer, layers of water found in unconsolidated materials such as gravel, sand, silt or clay.

Overburden is a general term for the layer overlying the bedrock, which includes Glacial moraines, the thick layer of rock and crushed stone and sand left by the passage of glaciers,

Glacial outwash deposits containing a higher proportion of granular material.

The Ausable Bayfield Maitland Valley Source Protection Region has both types of aquifers.

Groundwater Quality: A Preliminary Approach to Analysis

The Goal – Establishing a Baseline

The Maitland Valley and Ausable Bayfield conservation authorities have only recently started systematically collecting data on the region’s groundwater.
Before 2003, data collection and aquifer studies were conducted for local or specific purposes only, leaving insufficient information to indicate trends in
water quality over time.

1) The main purpose of the groundwater portion of the water quality report therefore is to establish a baseline in groundwater quality against which future data may be compared.

2) The secondary purpose is to identify any red flags or current issues (e.g., water quality indicators that fall short of recognized standards).

Notes on the Data and Groundwater Quality Indicators

It is possible to test for a wide range of indicators but, for the sake of research efficiency, seven key indicators are used to assess groundwater quality in the region:
Nitrate
Hardness
Fluoride
Iron
Sodium
Chloride
E. coli

These groundwater indicators differ from surface water indicators. Phosphorus, for example, is not considered to be a relevant parameter for groundwater

Concentrations are low and are expected to remain so as the chemical is typically absorbed by the soil before it reaches the groundwater.

Understanding the Indicators

Indicators

Potential Sources

Relevance and Potential Impacts

Nitrate

Nitrogen-rich nutrients applied to farm land

Once introduced, nitrates are persistent in shallow aquifers and saturated groundwater. Their presence indicates a connection to surface water but not the extent of that connection.

Hardness

Natural characteristic of groundwater

Hardness is an indicator of ‘security’ of aquifer. When there is relative ‘softness’ where hardness expected, it suggests surface water interaction.
It is a nuisance re: domestic use.

Fluoride

Common, natural in bedrock aquifers

Fluoride can be a plus in low levels for human health. It strengthens bones and prevents tooth decay. However, fluoride is an issue in higher concentrations.

Fluoride can have benefits in low levels but it can have adverse health effects in high levels. Large quantities can lead to discoloured teeth, bone disorders and kidney, liver and adrenal failure.

Iron

Natural or Contaminant

The indicator is difficult to interpret.

Iron can be a nuisance re: domestic use.

Long records are necessary.

Sodium

Natural or Contaminant

(e.g. road salt)

Its presence is evidence of contamination: equal measures of sodium and chloride (i.e., salt)

Sodium can be health issue. Road salt management improvement in vicinity of susceptible aquifers is needed.

Chloride

May be natural in low concentration

More commonly from human activity (human, livestock waste, road salt)

Chloride is not a health issue.; it may be an aesthetic concern.

Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Escherichia coli originates in human, livestock or wildlife fecal matter. It is an indicator for pathogens.

E. coli is not present in groundwater unless there is a direct connection exists between aquifer and surface water. Its presence may indicate poor quality well and not reflective of quality of aquifer.

More than 2,300 people became ill and seven people died when the drinking water system in Walkerton, Ontario became contaminated in May of 2000. The well system was contaminated with deadly bacteria: primarily Escherichia coli O157:H7.1 as well as Campylobacter jejuni.

Studies on E. coli O157:H7 in various soil types show that these pathogens survive at least 10 to 25 weeks.

Escherichia coli are bacteria that normally inhabit the large intestines of humans and other mammals. Most E. coli bacteria are harmless to healthy humans and do not cause disease. However, some forms of E. coli cause disease through the intestines.

E. coli O157:H7, a subgroup of E. coli, produces verotoxins that cause hemorrhagic colitis and, in some cases, hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). HUS is life-threatening. A person infected with E. coli O157:H7 can experience intestinal disease marked by diarrhea usually lasting about four days or more.
Bloody diarrhea often occurs 24 hours after someone gets the illness. The infected person may experience severe abdominal pain.

E. coli O157:H7 infection can have very serious consquences to the elderly and to children under five years of age. It may cause hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS).

Verotoxins produced by E. coli O157:H7 cause acute kidney failure, anemia, and low platelet counts, according to the Report of the Walkerton Inquiry.

Verotoxin produced by E. coli O157:H7 can also affect small blood vessels in the brain. Campylobacter jejuni is the most common type of Campylobacter bacteria that causes human illness. It is often found in feces of cattle, swine, sheep, goats, fowl, and wildlife, including birds and deer. Most human infections are caused by the ingestion of contaminated foods, usually undercooked poultry. C. jejuni can also be passed to humans through unpasteurized milk, direct contact with animals, person-to-person transmission, and water.

For more information visit this link: Walkerton Inquiry

Groundwater Quality

For the most part the region’s groundwater quality is good. Identified concerns include:
Salt contamination in areas of historic brine wells.
Shallow overburden aquifer contamination via surface water.
High levels of naturally occurring indicators in bedrock aquifers (fluoride, sodium, iron, and hardness).

While overburden aquifers have excellent water quality they are more susceptible to contamination:

From highly mobile parameters such as road salt, nitrates;

From wellhead practices (Bored or dug wells can be conduits for surface water).

Most of the region’s bedrock aquifers are of good to excellent water quality.
One, the Hamilton aquifer in the south of the region, is rated poor and variable.

(Lake Huron is now used for domestic water purposes in this area.)

Lake Huron Water Quality

Our text focuses on water quality in the vicinity of drinking water intakes.

[Refer to map re: total phosphorus and nitrates]

Trends and Potential Issues

Data suggest:

A decline in total phosphorus concentrations at both major drinking water intakes, Lake Huron Primary Water Supply System (at Port Blake, near Grand Bend) and Goderich, since the1970s.

Please visit Lake Huron Primary Water Supply System and the Town of Goderich online for current information.

Potentially increasing nitrate concentrations since 1976.

Total phosphorus, nitrate and chloride concentrations were greater at Goderich than at the Lake Huron Primary Water Supply System (Port Blake).

Mean concentrations of nutrients at Goderich were nearly twice that at Port Blake.

A mean concentration is …the average reading in a series of samples.

Concentrations are measured in mass per volume of water. For example, chemical and chemical compounds such as nitrate, fluoride, sodium and chloride are typically measured in milligrams per litre of water (mg L-1). E. coli, as bacteria, are measured in colony forming units per hundred millilitres (cfu/100ml).

At Goderich:

The mean concentrations of nutrients threaten to create eutrophic conditions in the nearshore.

Eutrophication / Eutrophic Conditions – Eutrophic conditions are when water is oxygen-starved. This occurs when water becomes nutrient rich which causes algae blooms and other micro-organisms to increase. These micro-organisms use oxygen in their life cycle, and decrease the available oxygen in the water for other organisms (e.g., fish).

Protecting the Goderich intake is complicated by the influence of the Maitland River and that relationship needs to be better understood.

At Lake Huron Primary Water Supply System:

Chloride concentrations are increasing.

Implications and Directions for Drinking Water Source Protection

Moving Toward a Strategy on Water Quality

(Please consult source protection plans for approved policies).

The region’s water sources are generally of good quality.

On that score, we are fortunate but there are some clear warning signs.

Drinking water source protection is the least costly way to provide a supply of clean municipal drinking water and protect public health.

Efforts to protect water sources (e.g., properly decommissioning a brine well that threatens a groundwater source) are required.

Critical Initiatives

At this stage, researchers offered the following recommendations and conclusions:
A more comprehensive monitoring system needs to be developed to track water quality and to assess protection measures.
The Goderich intake may be under the influence of river contamination. The levels and behaviour of bacteria and associated pathogens need to be better understood.
Naturally occurring elements are more frequently identified as exceeding guidelines in bedrock aquifers.
The connections between sinkholes and water quality need to be analyzed.
The impact of river contaminants on aquifers (where the bedrock is exposed) needs to be studied.
Timelines along pathways from surface to groundwater need to be identified (Is there a significant time lag? Given the short time data have been collected is it possible today’s pollution will appear a few years hence? In other words do the groundwater quality results give us a false sense of security?)
Surface water indicators are generally above the guidelines. Given the pathways, restoration efforts are needed to protect ground- and lake water.
Historic trends in nitrates and the role of atmospheric deposition needs to be understood.
Lake Huron water quality needs to be monitored more comprehensively.

Title: Water Facts

The following item, called ‘By the numbers,’ was published by CBC News Online on August 25, 2004.

CANADA:

More than 24 million
The number of Canadians who receive municipal drinking water.
Source: Federation of Canadian Municipalities

About 4,000
The number of municipal water treatment plants in Canada that treat drinking water taken from lakes, rivers and groundwater sources.
Source: Federation of Canadian Municipalities

Less than 3 per cent
The amount of municipally-treated water that is used for drinking.
Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada

1.5 litres
The amount of water the average adult drinks daily, including water used in drinks such as coffee, tea and juice.
Source: Health Canada

21.4 litres
The amount of bottled water the average Canadian drank in 1997.
Source: Statistics Canada

343 litres
The amount of water the average Canadian used daily inside the home in 1998.
Most indoor water is used in the bathroom.
Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada

50%
The percentage of all municipally-treated water used up during the summer months by people watering their lawns and gardens.
Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada

20%
The percentage of all municipal drinking water lost to leaks.
Source: Federation of Canadian Municipalities

1,600 cubic metres
The amount or water used in Canada per capita basis for all purposes. Of the 29 member nations of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), only the United States uses more water than Canada on a per capita basis. Canada’s per capita water consumption is 65 per cent above the OECD average.
Source: OECD

30%
The percentage of Canadians who rely on groundwater for domestic use.
Source: Statistics Canada
1-2 million
The number of water wells currently in use in Canada.
Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada

22 million
The number of Canadians who use municipal sewer systems.
Source: Federation of Canadian Municipalities

About 3,000
The number of municipal wastewater treatment plants in Canada that remove contaminants and disinfect sewage before it is dumped back into Canadian waters.
Source: Federation of Canadian Municipalities

6%
The percentage of Canadians who lived in municipalities with sewers containing wastewater that received no treatment before being discharged into the environment in 1996. This was down from 28 per cent in 1983.
Source: Statistics Canada

41%
The percentage of Canadians whose water received tertiary treatment, the highest level of wastewater treatment, in 1996. This was up from 28 per cent in 1983.
Source: Statistics Canada

More than 1 trillion litres
The amount of untreated sewage dumped into our waters every year (about 3.25 billion litres per day) by 21 cities across the country.
Source: Sierra Legal Defence Fund

100 %
The percentage of Canadians living in urban areas who have access to clean water. This figure is 99 per cent for rural Canada. Compare this to Afghanistan where only 19 per cent of urban residents and 11 per cent of rural residents have access to clean water.
Source: World Health Organization
More than 160
The number of waterborne disease outbreaks that were reported in Canada between 1974 and 1996. It is estimated that only one-tenth of such outbreaks are reported.
Source: Health Canada

7
The number of people who died in Walkerton, Ontario, in May 2000 when E. coli O157:H7 and other bacteria contaminated the town’s water supply. In total, more than 2,000 people got sick.
Source: CBC News Online

100
The number of people who died in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 due to an outbreak of the water-borne parasite cryptosporidium. In total, about 400,000 people got sick.
Source: CBC News Online

About 34,000
The number of people who die each day worldwide due to diseases related to water, feces and dirt, such as cholera and infant diarrhea. In developing
countries, 80 per cent of illnesses are water related.
Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada

20-25%
The percentage of the world’s fresh water that is in Canada.
Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada

891,863 square kilometres
The amount of space covered by Canada’s freshwater lakes, ponds and rivers. This accounts for about nine per cent of the Canada’s total area.
Source: Natural Resources Canada

Almost 3,000 cubic metres
The amount of water that flows over Niagara Falls every second in the daytime.
At night about half of this water is diverted for hydroelectricity. Niagara
Falls is the largest producer of electric power in the world.
Source: Info Niagara

31,328 square kilometres
The size of Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories, the largest lake entirely in Canada (the Great Lakes border the U.S.). Great Bear Lake is more than five times the size of Prince Edward Island.
Source: Statistics Canada

2,681 square kilometres
The size of Wollaston Lake in Saskatchewan, the largest lake in the world that drains naturally in two directions – north into the Mackenzie River basin and east into Hudson Bay.
Source: Natural Resources Canada

INTERNATIONAL:

1.1 billion
The estimated number of people worldwide who lack access to clean drinking water.

2.4 billion
The estimated number of people worldwide who lack access to sanitation. Most are in Africa and Asia.

2 billion
The estimated number of people who depend on groundwater worldwide (about one-third of the world’s population). Countries around the world face rapidly depleting groundwater resources, including parts of India, China, West Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, the former Soviet Union and the western United States.

About 80
The number of countries that had experienced serious water shortages by the mid 1990s. This makes up about 40 per cent of the world’s population.

One-third
The proportion of the global population who live in countries with moderate-to-high water stress. Water stress occurs when water consumption exceeds 10 per cent of renewable freshwater resources. West Asia faces the severest threat. More than 90 per cent of the population in the region lives under severe water stress.

Two-thirds
The proportion of the global population that is expected to be living in water stressed conditions in less than 25 years.

40%
The increase in global water use expected by 2020.

$30 billion
The projected cost per year of bringing poor people universal access to water by 2015.
Source: United Nations Environment Programme, GEO-Global Environment Outlook 3,
Past, Present and Future Perspectives

Per capita consumption of beverages, 1997
Soft drinks 112.6
Coffee 93.7
Milk 88.9
Alcoholic 81.1
Tea 56.6
Fruit juice 27.6
Bottled water 21.4
Vegetable juice 1.5
SOURCE: CBC News Online, August 25, 2004

How much water is used per task
Task Amount consumed
Washing machine 225 litres
Shower (10 minutes) 100 litres
Bath 60 litres
Dishwasher 40 litres
Washing dishes by hand 35 litres
Toilet flush 15-20 litres
Brushing your teeth (with tap running) 10 litres
Hand washing (with tap running) 8 litres
SOURCE: CBC News Online, August 25, 2004

Breakdown of water used in the home
Task Percentage of water used

Showers and baths 35 %
Toilet Flushing 30 %
Laundry 20 %
Kitchen and drinking 10 %
Cleaning 5 %

SOURCE: CBC News Online, August 25, 2004

SECTION THREE

Additional Sources:

Reading, Listening and Viewing Resources:

Water Quality brochure, Ausable Bayfield and Maitland Valley Drinking Water Source Protection Region

Watershed Report Cards, Ausable Bayfield Conservation Authority and Maitland Valley Conservation Authority

‘Water Under Fire,’ documentary as seen on TV Ontario

Review Environment and Climate Change Canada fact sheet on ‘What can I do to improve water quality?

View ‘Ryan’s Well,’ an award-winning documentary

Issues in Ecology: Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Water with Phosphorus and Nitrogen, by Stephen Carpenter, Chair; Nina F. Caraco; David L. Correll; Robert W. Howarth; Andrew N. Sharpley, and Val H. Smith; Issues in Ecology, Number 3, Summer 1998.

Self-assessment on learning goals

Mark each box with a . . . plus sign + (Yes, True), a minus sign – (No, Not
True)
or a question mark ? (Uncertain).
I have:

__ . . . formed a clear appreciation of the link between water quality and
human health.

__ . . . acquired a greater understanding of the impacts of degraded water
quality.

__ . . . expanded my knowledge of water quality in the Ausable Bayfield
Maitland Valley Source Protection Region.

__ . . . developed a greater sense of the human and geographic factors that
influence water quality.

__ . . . acquired a preliminary understanding of methods for assessing
water quality.

More help

Do you want more information? Do you want to learn more? Your facilitator is prepared to discuss any topic or question with the goal of helping you to successfully move to the next module. Or, put your concern in the ‘Parking Lot’ at the front or call or email your source protection region.

Chapter 7 of the Assessment Reports provides an overview of how the Source Protection Committee has considered the Great Lakes in their deliberations.

Information here is provisional, subject to change, and posted for local information and education purposes. For current information visit Ontario.ca and sourcewaterinfo.on.ca. We would like to acknowledge the support of the Government of Ontario. Such support does not indicate endorsement of the contents of this material.

© Active Learning Program 2019